History of Paper -- essays research papers

The first historical mention of paper is 104 A.D. in China. The Empress of China at that time loved books and wanted to have a lot of them made. At the time everything was written on silk scrolls which were extremely expensive and time consuming to make. She wanted something cheaper and easier to use and so she asked one of her servants, a gentleman by the name of Tsi Lun to come up with an alternative. He worked for over nine years experimenting with different things and finally came up with hemp, mulberry tree bark, silk and old fishing nets all ground up into a mushy pulp. I wonder how he ever thought of it; the history books don't say. The Empress was very pleased and Tsi Lun was elevated to a high rank in the court. Unfortunately for him, the Empress then asked Tsi Lun to spread malicious gossip about some of her enemies at court. When the Empress fell out of power, those people were extremely angry with Tsi Lun and he was either put to death or forced to commit suicide. Strange, isn't it, how things go in the world? And, of course, all of this that I am sharing with you is just one version of history. Others will perhaps be able to give a different rendering. I have read many. I like the story of Tsi Lun. Most people agree on that one. But, as for the spread of papermaking as an art, well, there are different stories told. To gather such accounts and compare them falls within the discipline of "Historiography", the history of the writing of history. (If you ever want to scamble your brains and loose all concept of the solidity of reality, just study the hisotry writing of history.) The following, I believe, is most likely closest to the truth. Papemmaking remained a secret Chinese art until around the year 700 A.D. when, during a war with China the Arab nations captured an entire town of papermakers and took them back to the middle east as prisoners where they were forced into labor making paper. The craft was learned a couple hundred years later by Westem Europeans during the Crusades. Curiously, the Church in Westem Europe initially banned the use of paper calling it a 'pagan art' believing that animal parchment was the only thing 'holy' enough to carry the Sacred Word. That strange prejudice lasted for more than 100 years, but they got over it. In the 17th century Europeans were making paper from cotton and linen rags. When paper is made ... ...which does not add to the pollution in the environment. Natural fiber paper makers have told me that they neutralize their caustic solutions with vinegar and baking soda. After the cooking process, once it is neutralized and checked with a litmus strip, the fiber cooking water can be disposed of down the drain without any fear of adding to the toxic waste in the environment, so there is hope.) The sad tale of our time period for the health of the eco system is that just as cotton and linen rags as sources for paper making were becoming scarce in the 17th century, trees in the 21st are also dissappearing. As an example, one single edition of the Sunday New York Times requires 30,000 acres of trees. And that's just the New York Times. What about the London Times? L.A. Times? And the millions of other papers printed around the world? Experiments have begun to find alternative sources of fiber and I have recently heard the European mills are turning toward hemp. Hemp yields 4 times the amount of cellulose fiber per acre than trees and is renewable within a year or two compared to 100 years for trees. As a lover of trees, I hope the rest of the world soon follows the European example.

Scientific Management

Course: Bachelor of Business Studies (BBS) Module: Principals of Management Title: Explain Scientific Management. Comment on the contribution of this approach to the development of management thought. What are its limitations? 33 Submission Date: 8th of March 2010 Word Count 2183 â€Å"The Principal object of management should be to secure the maximum prosperity for the employer, coupled with the maximum prosperity for each employee† (Taylor, 1947) Introduction The Author will discuss Scientific Management under the following headings: Section 1 An explanation on Scientific Management. Section 2, The contribution of Scientific Management to the development of Management thought and Section 3 looks at the limitations of Scientific Management. What is Scientific Management? Bratton et al (2007: 355) defines scientific management as a process of systematically partitioning work into its smallest elements and standardising tasks to achieve maximum efficiency. The scientific management approach was developed at the end of the 19th Century; its father is commonly accepted to be Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1917) although some variations of the theory have been developed by Gantt and Gilbreth. The scientific management approach was set up to improve labour productivity by evaluating and setting up workflow practices. Taylor was Chief Engineer at the Midvale Steel Company his first-hand experience here led Taylor to recognise that labour productivity was largely inefficient due to a workforce that functioned by â€Å"rules of thumb† methods. In 1898 Taylor was employed as a consultant by the Bethlehem Steel works Company, where he applied his principles of scientific management through evaluating work in a scientific manner. Taylor gained this information with his â€Å"Time and Motion Study†, as Dale explains, Taylor employed a young man to analyse all the operations and the motions performed in each and to time the motions with a stopwatch. From knowing how long it took actually to perform each of the elements in each job, it would be possible †¦ To determine a really â€Å"fair days work†. (Dale 1963, p155) Taylor’s experience at Bethlehem Steel led him to develop four principals of management. The first being substitute rule of thumb work processes with processes based on a scientific study of the tasks. Taylor broke down each part of the production process into individual tasks to accomplish task specialisation. Taylor also used time and motion studies to establish the most proficient technique for performing each work task and giving rest periods. Secondly, managers should select, train, teach and develop the most suitable person for each job. Taylor hated â€Å"soldering†, and by introducing a piece-rate system of pay he eliminated the group process in which workers slowed their speed of work to suit the ordinary worker’s needs. Thirdly, comprehensive training and supervision to each worker must be given by management to guarantee the job is done in a scientific way and finally scientific management principals need to be applied to the planning and supervising of work and the workforce complete the tasks. The Principals of scientific management were widely accepted and spread as far as the Soviet Union where Taylor’s principals were included into a variety of five-year development plans. The most well-known application of Taylor’s principals of scientific management was in Henry Ford’s Model T. Frank Gilbreth (1868 –1924) and his wife Lillian (1878 – 1972), developed variations of Taylor’s scientific management, they were mostly concerned with the elimination of waste and like Taylor thought that a â€Å"One Best Way† to carry out a task could be found. Another contributor to scientific management was Henry Gantt (1856-1915) who was a protege of Taylor’s who designed the Gantt chart a straight line chart to display and measure planned and completed work as time elapsed. The contribution of Scientific Management to the development of Management thought Scientific management does play an important role in the 21st Century. Examples of scientific management can be seen in our car and computer industries, the hospitals and the restaurants we eat in and nearly all function more efficiently due to scientific management. In today’s economic environment scientific management is probably more important in today’s businesses then ever before. The Author will discuss this under the following headings: Scientific Study of work, use of incentives, division of labour and the selection and training of workers. Scientific Study of work The fundamental tools that result in increased productivity are time study standards and work design. For example in the production department of any company materials are requested and controlled; the sequence of operations, inspections, and methods are determined; tools are ordered; time values are assigned; work is scheduled, dispatched and followed up. A good example of scientific management in today’s society is any of the directory enquires numbers, staff read from a script and simple ask what number you want and then a computer reads out the number and even asks if you would like to be connected. Use of incentives According to Taylor workers were only motivated by money, in today’s workplace Taylor’s piece rate pay may have a different name â€Å"performance related pay† is how its new trading name and most of the Multi International companies now pay their workers a very basic pay and only rewards staff who excel at there jobs. According to Taylor one should â€Å"pay the worker, not the job†. In the Authors organisation Eircom all staff from the lines engineers to the managers are all paid by performance and this has helped to eliminate a lot of the ‘soldiering’ that used to take place. Division of Labour Scientific management gives managers control and this can be seen in many of our call centres whether its directory enquires or calling the bank ‘thank you for calling and how may I direct your call? ’ these scripts show us 21st Century management control. Management see these scripts as necessary to keep workers efficient and consistent but it is just modern day Taylorism which assumes that workers are dim and lazy. Selection and training of workers Finding the ‘best’ person for the job is still a challenge for many companies. Many companies now use automated curriculum vitae processing by computers with scientific personality testing to try and match the job to the right person. Employers are looking for employees to work hard, be flexible and to be skilled. It is imperative to get the right people, with the right skills in the right positions and at the right time. Choosing the right people may increase an organisations competitive advantage which is after all central to competitive success of any organisation. Limitations of scientific management Scientific management has been in a state of constant evolution since its adoption. The objective of the scientific management movement was to increase efficiency by carefully planning workers’ movement in the most efficient way. Taylor’s ideas and those of his followers led to time-and-motion experts with their stopwatches and clipboards observing workers, and seeking the ‘one best way’ in which every job could be performed. From the late 1920s, a ‘human relations’ school of thought emerged, challenging Taylorist beliefs in formal work structures and what was considered to be the over-simplification of the concept of motivation. Scientific Management was based on the assumption that workers were driven entirely by economic concerns but Human Relations researchers examined the behaviour of people at work and argued that social factors such as informal work groups and management styles influenced performance. As a result, the personnel management function began to focus on matching the needs of employees with those of management, through the creation of informal structures and managerial styles (Gormley 2009). The Hawthorne Studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues are exemplary early studies in this tradition and work on motivation by Abraham Maslow although their ideas were built on the original quantitative theories of measuring work as seen in scientific management they also discovered some of the limitations of ‘Taylorism’. The Author will now discuss the limitations of scientific management as discovered by Mayo, Maslow and Deming. Elton Mayo and the Hawthorne Studies The Bank Wiring Observation Room Experiments which involved a group of men being observed in their natural work setting with no changes to their working conditions but with an observer taking notes and interviewing them. The group had set there own standards and restricted their output. They had decided what their daily limit was and what constituted as a fair day’s work and this was not to be exceeded by any worker. The results showed Mayo that workers were dissatisfied with the scientific approach. Mayo’s results placed focus on the social context of work: in particular, worker motivation, group dynamics and group relations. The workers were joined in there opposition to management and were not motivated by the financial incentives offered for higher output. Data gathered at the Hawthorne plant (collectively known as The Hawthorne studies) suggested a positive association between labour productivity and management styles. Abraham Maslow (Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs) Maslow was concerned with the issue of employee motivation and wanted to explain how workers could be motivated to achieve higher performance. Maslow focused on the paternalistic style of management focusing on employees’ social needs as the key to better relations and better erformance. This became known as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, the needs which Maslow identified started with †¢ Physiological needs – food and shelter †¢ Safety needs – the need to feel secure †¢ Acceptance needs – the need to feel accepted by others †¢ Esteem needs – the need for self respect †¢ S elf Actualisation – the need for self achievement and fulfilment W. Deming and Total Quality Management Total quality management (TQM) sees quality as a key to organisational success and emphasizes prevention rather than the correction of mistakes. In the Authors opinion TQM is probably the modern day ‘Taylorism’ the four principals of TQM are. Plan Prepare and plan in a structured way by learning from the past and setting benchmarks for change. Do If your goal is far-reaching, start small and evaluate your results before going wider. Study Analyze the results of what you have done and find out how to apply what you have learned to future activities. Act – Do what you need to do to make your process better and easier to replicate In Demings 14 point management plan, Deming wanted everything to be uniform , in delivery times , prices and work practices. . Create constancy of purpose towards improvement. Replace short-term reaction with long-term planning. 2. Adopt the new philosophy. The implication is that management should actually adopt his philosophy, rather than merely expect the workforce to do so. 3. Cease dependence on inspection. If variation is reduced, there is no need to inspect manufactured items for defects, because there won't be any. 4. Move towards a single supplier for any one item. 5. Improve constantly and forever. Constantly strive to reduce variation. 6. Institute training on the job. If people are inadequately trained, they will not all work the same way, and this will introduce variation. 7. Institute leadership. Deming makes a distinction between leadership and mere supervision. 8. Drive out fear. Deming sees management by fear as counter- productive in the long term, because it prevents workers from acting in the organisation's best interests. 9. Break down barriers between departments. Another idea central to TQM is the concept of the ‘internal customer', that each department serves not the management, but the other departments that use its outputs. 10. Eliminate slogans. Another central TQM idea is that it's not people who make most mistakes – it's the process they are working within. Harassing the workforce without improving the processes they use is counter-productive. 11. Eliminate management by objectives. Deming saw production targets as encouraging the delivery of poor-quality goods. 12. Remove barriers to pride of workmanship. Many of the other problems outlined reduce worker satisfaction. 13. Institute education and self-improvement. 14. The transformation is everyone's job. Each of these management models teaches us something about the limitations of scientific management. Scientific Management is often associated with negative consequences both for workers, who may consider themselves to be victims of exploitation and for managers, who may find it difficult to motivate such workers or to deal with poor performance and resistance. Conclusion Considering that Frederick Taylor has been dead for nearly a century and in this time a knowledge explosion has taken place, Taylor’s track record is extraordinary. If Taylor, Gantt, Gilbreth and Lillian were alive today would they be happy with what has become management thought? In the Authors pinion many of the different management styles all share certain similar characteristics of scientific management and the Author believes that they would all find the total participation movement quite acceptable. The Scientific management theories discussed above evolved from the needs of the past to manage mainly the labour force. The needs of the present in the current economic climate may require similar recordin g of procedures as involved with time and motion studies during the Industrial Revolution in the past to regulate the workings of Finance in Banking and related areas mainly facilitated by the IT Revolution. Rest assured that changes in the past and the present and their successful resolution by scientific management will be replicated many times in the future and hopefully the resolutions will improve/maximise the return for the employer (stakeholder) and employee. In conclusion there is no single ‘best’ strategy or style of management. The ‘best’ solution is the one that is most fitting in relation to the particular needs of that organisation. Bibliography Bratton, J, (2007) Work and Organisational Behaviour, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, . Dale, E. (1973) Management, Theory & Practice. New York: McGraw-Hill. Griffin, R. (2009) Fundamentals of Management. (5th Edition), USA: South Western College Gunnigle, P, and Heraty, N. and Morley, M. J. , (2006). Human Resource Management in Ireland. (3rd Edition) Dublin, Gill & Macmillan. Taylor, F, (1947). Scientific Management . New York: Harper Row. Tiernan, S. and Morley, M. and Foley, E. (2006). Modern Management (3rd Edition) Dublin, Gill & Macmillan Scientific Management While this theory has made many positive contributions to management practice, there have also been negative implications. On a positive note, Taylorism has made an impact on the introduction of the 8 hour working day, minimum wage rates and incentive and bonus schemes, and more importantly, highlighted management as an important area of study, allowing for other theorists to improve on, or provide alternative management theories in response to scientific management such as more worker orientated theories, namely behavioural management. Taylor’s ideals have however been under constant scrutiny as managers highlight the shortfalls of scientific management. While the highly mechanistic way of practice may lead to increased productivity, it essentially works by dehumanising workers and viewing them simply as an ‘appendage of machinery. ’ Caldari argues (2007: 61) that Taylor’s ignorance of social considerations leads to conflict, low worker morale, and low trust between workers and neglect the ability for individual creativity to provide a positive input to the workplace. While Taylor’s theories have been subject to many criticisms, scientific management has made an instrumental contribution to modern management practice across the world. By placing emphasis on the management of workers, Taylor essentially highlighted the importance of management theory and paved the way for further development on management as an important element of business practices. Taylor created a way of replacing the ‘guesswork’ involved in the manufacturing process by replacing it with a scientific way of thinking, strict rules and procedures (Caldari 2007: 58). This form of management practice allows managers to more efficiently control and direct their labour force and similarly it provides space for managers to monitor the workforce, and identify inefficiencies and sources of waste in the manufacturing process. As Parker and Ritson discuss (2005: 1340), this allows managers to observe the labour force and ensure that appropriate work procedures are being followed and appropriate results are achieved. Thus, creating space for managers to correct these inefficiencies early in the manufacturing process and minimise waste, subsequently maximising profits. Therefore, although Taylor's contributions were considered controversial and even radical, his theory and dedication to management practice remains influential on contemporary business management, and he can be held responsible for laying the foundations for current strategic and systematic methods of planning and execution of tasks (Darmody, 2007: 1). Regardless of the benefits that may be gained from scientific work practices, criticism stemmed from the impression that Taylor had little concern with the psychology of workers. Taylor’s search for a healthy and efficient workforce however, stemmed from research conducted on the relationship between long working hours and fatigue. Taylor was concerned with the effect that working hours was having on productivity and upon results of such experiments, proceeded to introduce shorter working hours believing that with fewer hours comes higher efficiency, intensified laboured hours and improved employee wellbeing. It is upon this philosophy, that Nyl (1995: 2) argues scientific management; primarily Taylor’s thinking was instrumental in creating the 8 hour working day of which is still implemented in many businesses today. In despite of the above mentioned interest in worker well-being, Caldari (2007: 64) emphasises that Taylor naively assumed that with less, but more intense hours, increased productivity and wages, well being of workers would automatically improve. However, due to the intensely standardised and restrictive rules and procedures that scientific management brings workers are likely to feel unappreciated leaving the door open to the potential of conflict between workers and managers. In this case, a strict line of command is seen to have connection with low worker morale as high productivity is achieved at a price. Caldari cites Marshall (2007: 66) saying that â€Å"trust, esteem and affection for staff are a valuable business asset, of a kind which machinery cannot achieve. † This emphasis recognises one of the downfalls of scientific management in that it restricts the development of a cohesive ‘team’ like workforce, rather restricting management focus to individuals. The constraints that are placed on individuals prevent any worker initiative and eventually depriving a business of potentially important and vital input from employees. As Caldari (2007) points out, managers â€Å"can miss the opportunity of taking advantage of potential resources but also, and moreover, for society that it is likely to waste its more important kind of capital. † (p. 67) With this impression in mind, although Freeman’s discussion (1996: 2) focused primarily on the effect of scientific management in a Japanese business environment, he makes some interesting observations about Taylor’s mechanistic approach that can transcend cultural barriers. Freeman highlights that while criticism’s of Scientific management revolve around it being ‘anti-worker,’ scientific management and ‘democratic’ management (which pays closer attention to the psychology and respect for workers) do not necessarily have to conflict. It is held that while the needs of workers are of foremost importance, Taylor’s ideal of quality management allowed for reduction in waste and increased production in Japanese business practices. In this context, scientific management was instrumental in improving efficiency and creating quality constraints, which ultimately lead to increased profits. Freeman highlights (1996: 6) that by working with unions with an even handed focus on the interests of workers and productivity, business practice can meet a happy medium between scientific management and human relations in the management of business. This ideal emphasises that although some managers claim that there is no place in modern business practice for scientific management, it is possible for Taylor’s ideals to transcend time as managers adapt scientific theories and collaborate Taylor’s methods with other theorists that have followed in his steps. Taylor’s scientific management has resulted in both positive and negative implications for business practice over the 20th and 21st century. We can see its contribution to modern business management in that many of its principles are still used today for example, minimum wage, rest periods and incentives for workers who reach a specified target. While these theories were originally implemented in businesses such as Henry Ford’s car manufacturing, we can see that these processes continue to benefit managers today both in that very same business, and in the same ways in other industries including, and not limited to the hospitality industry where for example, detailed procedures and rules are enforced by a strict line of autocratic managers in a strict line of command at McDonalds or Hungry Jacks. It has been highlighted that although Taylor’s scientific management incorporates shortfalls with regards to the management of a workforce as far as viewing a workforce as valuable human resources rather than machinery, in today’s management practices, elements of Taylor’s theory are able to work in conjunction with often more palatable behavioural theories in order to control and monitor a successful workforce. Taylor was instrumental for creating a new ‘paradigm’ of management thinking and the scientific management theory does, and will continue impart to influence the way businesses operate and complete day to day tasks and assignments (Darmody, 2007: 1). Caldari, K. (2007). ‘Alfred Marshall’s critical analysis of scientific management. ’ The European Journal of the History of Economic Thought,14 (1), 55-78. Darmody, P. J. (2007). ‘Henry L. Gantt and Frederick Taylor: The Pioneers of Scientific Management. ’ AACE International Transactions, 151. Davidson (2008) Management: Core Concepts and Skills in ‘Management', John Wiley, Milton. Freeman, M. G. (1996) ‘Don’t throw scientific management out with the bathwater. ’ _Quality Progress,_ 29(4), Parker, L. D. Ritson, P. (2005) ‘Fads, stereotypes and management gurus: Fayol and Follett today. ’ Management Decision, 43(10), 1335. Scientific Management Course: Bachelor of Business Studies (BBS) Module: Principals of Management Title: Explain Scientific Management. Comment on the contribution of this approach to the development of management thought. What are its limitations? 33 Submission Date: 8th of March 2010 Word Count 2183 â€Å"The Principal object of management should be to secure the maximum prosperity for the employer, coupled with the maximum prosperity for each employee† (Taylor, 1947) Introduction The Author will discuss Scientific Management under the following headings: Section 1 An explanation on Scientific Management. Section 2, The contribution of Scientific Management to the development of Management thought and Section 3 looks at the limitations of Scientific Management. What is Scientific Management? Bratton et al (2007: 355) defines scientific management as a process of systematically partitioning work into its smallest elements and standardising tasks to achieve maximum efficiency. The scientific management approach was developed at the end of the 19th Century; its father is commonly accepted to be Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1917) although some variations of the theory have been developed by Gantt and Gilbreth. The scientific management approach was set up to improve labour productivity by evaluating and setting up workflow practices. Taylor was Chief Engineer at the Midvale Steel Company his first-hand experience here led Taylor to recognise that labour productivity was largely inefficient due to a workforce that functioned by â€Å"rules of thumb† methods. In 1898 Taylor was employed as a consultant by the Bethlehem Steel works Company, where he applied his principles of scientific management through evaluating work in a scientific manner. Taylor gained this information with his â€Å"Time and Motion Study†, as Dale explains, Taylor employed a young man to analyse all the operations and the motions performed in each and to time the motions with a stopwatch. From knowing how long it took actually to perform each of the elements in each job, it would be possible †¦ To determine a really â€Å"fair days work†. (Dale 1963, p155) Taylor’s experience at Bethlehem Steel led him to develop four principals of management. The first being substitute rule of thumb work processes with processes based on a scientific study of the tasks. Taylor broke down each part of the production process into individual tasks to accomplish task specialisation. Taylor also used time and motion studies to establish the most proficient technique for performing each work task and giving rest periods. Secondly, managers should select, train, teach and develop the most suitable person for each job. Taylor hated â€Å"soldering†, and by introducing a piece-rate system of pay he eliminated the group process in which workers slowed their speed of work to suit the ordinary worker’s needs. Thirdly, comprehensive training and supervision to each worker must be given by management to guarantee the job is done in a scientific way and finally scientific management principals need to be applied to the planning and supervising of work and the workforce complete the tasks. The Principals of scientific management were widely accepted and spread as far as the Soviet Union where Taylor’s principals were included into a variety of five-year development plans. The most well-known application of Taylor’s principals of scientific management was in Henry Ford’s Model T. Frank Gilbreth (1868 –1924) and his wife Lillian (1878 – 1972), developed variations of Taylor’s scientific management, they were mostly concerned with the elimination of waste and like Taylor thought that a â€Å"One Best Way† to carry out a task could be found. Another contributor to scientific management was Henry Gantt (1856-1915) who was a protege of Taylor’s who designed the Gantt chart a straight line chart to display and measure planned and completed work as time elapsed. The contribution of Scientific Management to the development of Management thought Scientific management does play an important role in the 21st Century. Examples of scientific management can be seen in our car and computer industries, the hospitals and the restaurants we eat in and nearly all function more efficiently due to scientific management. In today’s economic environment scientific management is probably more important in today’s businesses then ever before. The Author will discuss this under the following headings: Scientific Study of work, use of incentives, division of labour and the selection and training of workers. Scientific Study of work The fundamental tools that result in increased productivity are time study standards and work design. For example in the production department of any company materials are requested and controlled; the sequence of operations, inspections, and methods are determined; tools are ordered; time values are assigned; work is scheduled, dispatched and followed up. A good example of scientific management in today’s society is any of the directory enquires numbers, staff read from a script and simple ask what number you want and then a computer reads out the number and even asks if you would like to be connected. Use of incentives According to Taylor workers were only motivated by money, in today’s workplace Taylor’s piece rate pay may have a different name â€Å"performance related pay† is how its new trading name and most of the Multi International companies now pay their workers a very basic pay and only rewards staff who excel at there jobs. According to Taylor one should â€Å"pay the worker, not the job†. In the Authors organisation Eircom all staff from the lines engineers to the managers are all paid by performance and this has helped to eliminate a lot of the ‘soldiering’ that used to take place. Division of Labour Scientific management gives managers control and this can be seen in many of our call centres whether its directory enquires or calling the bank ‘thank you for calling and how may I direct your call? ’ these scripts show us 21st Century management control. Management see these scripts as necessary to keep workers efficient and consistent but it is just modern day Taylorism which assumes that workers are dim and lazy. Selection and training of workers Finding the ‘best’ person for the job is still a challenge for many companies. Many companies now use automated curriculum vitae processing by computers with scientific personality testing to try and match the job to the right person. Employers are looking for employees to work hard, be flexible and to be skilled. It is imperative to get the right people, with the right skills in the right positions and at the right time. Choosing the right people may increase an organisations competitive advantage which is after all central to competitive success of any organisation. Limitations of scientific management Scientific management has been in a state of constant evolution since its adoption. The objective of the scientific management movement was to increase efficiency by carefully planning workers’ movement in the most efficient way. Taylor’s ideas and those of his followers led to time-and-motion experts with their stopwatches and clipboards observing workers, and seeking the ‘one best way’ in which every job could be performed. From the late 1920s, a ‘human relations’ school of thought emerged, challenging Taylorist beliefs in formal work structures and what was considered to be the over-simplification of the concept of motivation. Scientific Management was based on the assumption that workers were driven entirely by economic concerns but Human Relations researchers examined the behaviour of people at work and argued that social factors such as informal work groups and management styles influenced performance. As a result, the personnel management function began to focus on matching the needs of employees with those of management, through the creation of informal structures and managerial styles (Gormley 2009). The Hawthorne Studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues are exemplary early studies in this tradition and work on motivation by Abraham Maslow although their ideas were built on the original quantitative theories of measuring work as seen in scientific management they also discovered some of the limitations of ‘Taylorism’. The Author will now discuss the limitations of scientific management as discovered by Mayo, Maslow and Deming. Elton Mayo and the Hawthorne Studies The Bank Wiring Observation Room Experiments which involved a group of men being observed in their natural work setting with no changes to their working conditions but with an observer taking notes and interviewing them. The group had set there own standards and restricted their output. They had decided what their daily limit was and what constituted as a fair day’s work and this was not to be exceeded by any worker. The results showed Mayo that workers were dissatisfied with the scientific approach. Mayo’s results placed focus on the social context of work: in particular, worker motivation, group dynamics and group relations. The workers were joined in there opposition to management and were not motivated by the financial incentives offered for higher output. Data gathered at the Hawthorne plant (collectively known as The Hawthorne studies) suggested a positive association between labour productivity and management styles. Abraham Maslow (Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs) Maslow was concerned with the issue of employee motivation and wanted to explain how workers could be motivated to achieve higher performance. Maslow focused on the paternalistic style of management focusing on employees’ social needs as the key to better relations and better erformance. This became known as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, the needs which Maslow identified started with †¢ Physiological needs – food and shelter †¢ Safety needs – the need to feel secure †¢ Acceptance needs – the need to feel accepted by others †¢ Esteem needs – the need for self respect †¢ S elf Actualisation – the need for self achievement and fulfilment W. Deming and Total Quality Management Total quality management (TQM) sees quality as a key to organisational success and emphasizes prevention rather than the correction of mistakes. In the Authors opinion TQM is probably the modern day ‘Taylorism’ the four principals of TQM are. Plan Prepare and plan in a structured way by learning from the past and setting benchmarks for change. Do If your goal is far-reaching, start small and evaluate your results before going wider. Study Analyze the results of what you have done and find out how to apply what you have learned to future activities. Act – Do what you need to do to make your process better and easier to replicate In Demings 14 point management plan, Deming wanted everything to be uniform , in delivery times , prices and work practices. . Create constancy of purpose towards improvement. Replace short-term reaction with long-term planning. 2. Adopt the new philosophy. The implication is that management should actually adopt his philosophy, rather than merely expect the workforce to do so. 3. Cease dependence on inspection. If variation is reduced, there is no need to inspect manufactured items for defects, because there won't be any. 4. Move towards a single supplier for any one item. 5. Improve constantly and forever. Constantly strive to reduce variation. 6. Institute training on the job. If people are inadequately trained, they will not all work the same way, and this will introduce variation. 7. Institute leadership. Deming makes a distinction between leadership and mere supervision. 8. Drive out fear. Deming sees management by fear as counter- productive in the long term, because it prevents workers from acting in the organisation's best interests. 9. Break down barriers between departments. Another idea central to TQM is the concept of the ‘internal customer', that each department serves not the management, but the other departments that use its outputs. 10. Eliminate slogans. Another central TQM idea is that it's not people who make most mistakes – it's the process they are working within. Harassing the workforce without improving the processes they use is counter-productive. 11. Eliminate management by objectives. Deming saw production targets as encouraging the delivery of poor-quality goods. 12. Remove barriers to pride of workmanship. Many of the other problems outlined reduce worker satisfaction. 13. Institute education and self-improvement. 14. The transformation is everyone's job. Each of these management models teaches us something about the limitations of scientific management. Scientific Management is often associated with negative consequences both for workers, who may consider themselves to be victims of exploitation and for managers, who may find it difficult to motivate such workers or to deal with poor performance and resistance. Conclusion Considering that Frederick Taylor has been dead for nearly a century and in this time a knowledge explosion has taken place, Taylor’s track record is extraordinary. If Taylor, Gantt, Gilbreth and Lillian were alive today would they be happy with what has become management thought? In the Authors pinion many of the different management styles all share certain similar characteristics of scientific management and the Author believes that they would all find the total participation movement quite acceptable. The Scientific management theories discussed above evolved from the needs of the past to manage mainly the labour force. The needs of the present in the current economic climate may require similar recordin g of procedures as involved with time and motion studies during the Industrial Revolution in the past to regulate the workings of Finance in Banking and related areas mainly facilitated by the IT Revolution. Rest assured that changes in the past and the present and their successful resolution by scientific management will be replicated many times in the future and hopefully the resolutions will improve/maximise the return for the employer (stakeholder) and employee. In conclusion there is no single ‘best’ strategy or style of management. The ‘best’ solution is the one that is most fitting in relation to the particular needs of that organisation. Bibliography Bratton, J, (2007) Work and Organisational Behaviour, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, . Dale, E. (1973) Management, Theory & Practice. New York: McGraw-Hill. Griffin, R. (2009) Fundamentals of Management. (5th Edition), USA: South Western College Gunnigle, P, and Heraty, N. and Morley, M. J. , (2006). Human Resource Management in Ireland. (3rd Edition) Dublin, Gill & Macmillan. Taylor, F, (1947). Scientific Management . New York: Harper Row. Tiernan, S. and Morley, M. and Foley, E. (2006). Modern Management (3rd Edition) Dublin, Gill & Macmillan Scientific Management While this theory has made many positive contributions to management practice, there have also been negative implications. On a positive note, Taylorism has made an impact on the introduction of the 8 hour working day, minimum wage rates and incentive and bonus schemes, and more importantly, highlighted management as an important area of study, allowing for other theorists to improve on, or provide alternative management theories in response to scientific management such as more worker orientated theories, namely behavioural management. Taylor’s ideals have however been under constant scrutiny as managers highlight the shortfalls of scientific management. While the highly mechanistic way of practice may lead to increased productivity, it essentially works by dehumanising workers and viewing them simply as an ‘appendage of machinery. ’ Caldari argues (2007: 61) that Taylor’s ignorance of social considerations leads to conflict, low worker morale, and low trust between workers and neglect the ability for individual creativity to provide a positive input to the workplace. While Taylor’s theories have been subject to many criticisms, scientific management has made an instrumental contribution to modern management practice across the world. By placing emphasis on the management of workers, Taylor essentially highlighted the importance of management theory and paved the way for further development on management as an important element of business practices. Taylor created a way of replacing the ‘guesswork’ involved in the manufacturing process by replacing it with a scientific way of thinking, strict rules and procedures (Caldari 2007: 58). This form of management practice allows managers to more efficiently control and direct their labour force and similarly it provides space for managers to monitor the workforce, and identify inefficiencies and sources of waste in the manufacturing process. As Parker and Ritson discuss (2005: 1340), this allows managers to observe the labour force and ensure that appropriate work procedures are being followed and appropriate results are achieved. Thus, creating space for managers to correct these inefficiencies early in the manufacturing process and minimise waste, subsequently maximising profits. Therefore, although Taylor's contributions were considered controversial and even radical, his theory and dedication to management practice remains influential on contemporary business management, and he can be held responsible for laying the foundations for current strategic and systematic methods of planning and execution of tasks (Darmody, 2007: 1). Regardless of the benefits that may be gained from scientific work practices, criticism stemmed from the impression that Taylor had little concern with the psychology of workers. Taylor’s search for a healthy and efficient workforce however, stemmed from research conducted on the relationship between long working hours and fatigue. Taylor was concerned with the effect that working hours was having on productivity and upon results of such experiments, proceeded to introduce shorter working hours believing that with fewer hours comes higher efficiency, intensified laboured hours and improved employee wellbeing. It is upon this philosophy, that Nyl (1995: 2) argues scientific management; primarily Taylor’s thinking was instrumental in creating the 8 hour working day of which is still implemented in many businesses today. In despite of the above mentioned interest in worker well-being, Caldari (2007: 64) emphasises that Taylor naively assumed that with less, but more intense hours, increased productivity and wages, well being of workers would automatically improve. However, due to the intensely standardised and restrictive rules and procedures that scientific management brings workers are likely to feel unappreciated leaving the door open to the potential of conflict between workers and managers. In this case, a strict line of command is seen to have connection with low worker morale as high productivity is achieved at a price. Caldari cites Marshall (2007: 66) saying that â€Å"trust, esteem and affection for staff are a valuable business asset, of a kind which machinery cannot achieve. † This emphasis recognises one of the downfalls of scientific management in that it restricts the development of a cohesive ‘team’ like workforce, rather restricting management focus to individuals. The constraints that are placed on individuals prevent any worker initiative and eventually depriving a business of potentially important and vital input from employees. As Caldari (2007) points out, managers â€Å"can miss the opportunity of taking advantage of potential resources but also, and moreover, for society that it is likely to waste its more important kind of capital. † (p. 67) With this impression in mind, although Freeman’s discussion (1996: 2) focused primarily on the effect of scientific management in a Japanese business environment, he makes some interesting observations about Taylor’s mechanistic approach that can transcend cultural barriers. Freeman highlights that while criticism’s of Scientific management revolve around it being ‘anti-worker,’ scientific management and ‘democratic’ management (which pays closer attention to the psychology and respect for workers) do not necessarily have to conflict. It is held that while the needs of workers are of foremost importance, Taylor’s ideal of quality management allowed for reduction in waste and increased production in Japanese business practices. In this context, scientific management was instrumental in improving efficiency and creating quality constraints, which ultimately lead to increased profits. Freeman highlights (1996: 6) that by working with unions with an even handed focus on the interests of workers and productivity, business practice can meet a happy medium between scientific management and human relations in the management of business. This ideal emphasises that although some managers claim that there is no place in modern business practice for scientific management, it is possible for Taylor’s ideals to transcend time as managers adapt scientific theories and collaborate Taylor’s methods with other theorists that have followed in his steps. Taylor’s scientific management has resulted in both positive and negative implications for business practice over the 20th and 21st century. We can see its contribution to modern business management in that many of its principles are still used today for example, minimum wage, rest periods and incentives for workers who reach a specified target. While these theories were originally implemented in businesses such as Henry Ford’s car manufacturing, we can see that these processes continue to benefit managers today both in that very same business, and in the same ways in other industries including, and not limited to the hospitality industry where for example, detailed procedures and rules are enforced by a strict line of autocratic managers in a strict line of command at McDonalds or Hungry Jacks. It has been highlighted that although Taylor’s scientific management incorporates shortfalls with regards to the management of a workforce as far as viewing a workforce as valuable human resources rather than machinery, in today’s management practices, elements of Taylor’s theory are able to work in conjunction with often more palatable behavioural theories in order to control and monitor a successful workforce. Taylor was instrumental for creating a new ‘paradigm’ of management thinking and the scientific management theory does, and will continue impart to influence the way businesses operate and complete day to day tasks and assignments (Darmody, 2007: 1). Caldari, K. (2007). ‘Alfred Marshall’s critical analysis of scientific management. ’ The European Journal of the History of Economic Thought,14 (1), 55-78. Darmody, P. J. (2007). ‘Henry L. Gantt and Frederick Taylor: The Pioneers of Scientific Management. ’ AACE International Transactions, 151. Davidson (2008) Management: Core Concepts and Skills in ‘Management', John Wiley, Milton. Freeman, M. G. (1996) ‘Don’t throw scientific management out with the bathwater. ’ _Quality Progress,_ 29(4), Parker, L. D. Ritson, P. (2005) ‘Fads, stereotypes and management gurus: Fayol and Follett today. ’ Management Decision, 43(10), 1335.

Family Relationships - 910 Words

There are many different family traditions and relationships based on our culture and how it was developed. We are trained to act and behave in such a manner that is â€Å"appropriate† from the time that we are born. Many of these actions are actually based on the cultures of ancient times. Some of our everyday traditions come from these cultures, along with our actions and behavior within our families. A few of these countries are Babylonia, Greece, and India. I have found one story from each country or culture, to show examples of families relationships and there importance to those affected by them. These three stories are Gilgamesh, The Odyssey, and The Ramayana. In the ancient country of Babylonia, there are a few things that have†¦show more content†¦In story 1 they mention how Rama, his wife, and his brother, the prince men are very powerful people. With their family ruling the grounds they are able to us this power to its greatest. Rama and his sons use trick y tactics and schemes to fight of there opposition. Working together there is many times that they will have worked up a plan or scheme to fight of hermits or even suitors. In the ancient India time, people acted very differently. Rama was willing to give up his night when his father asks him to do it. Families were close, but you could also see them turn on one another. To rule the throne was the master plan, and everyone wanted there fair chance. While being under the master ruler, you would respect him, but also be jealous. This caused controversy with a few things, but most importantly still showed how the Indian families were still able to live with one another and be successful. Whether we are talking Babylonia, Greece or India there are many different ways in which family relationships affect there cultures. All three; Gilgamesh, The Odyssey, and The Ramayana are stories which portrayed families attributes to perfectly fit there time in ancient history. From this we can learn that our own family relationships today may have something to do with our ancestors. That we are all created equal but we may not view each other as equal. As long as we have support and trust from our families then we willShow MoreRelatedRelationship Between Family And Family Relationships1200 Words   |  5 PagesAs usual, people have three relationships during whole their lives: romantic, friendship, and family. While family is one of the longest lasting relationship over all. There is identified as the strongest relationship and the most effect to personal characters. Unlike other relationship, family affection is cultivated during a long time by sticking together and blood related. Even the family relationship is not dreamy and romantic as loving relationship, not funny and comfortable such as friendshipRead MoreSibling Relationships And Family Relationships912 Words   |  4 PagesOver time the relationships you have with your siblings change, you can start out not liking e ach other and then in later life being to love or tolerate each other (Brothers, Sisters and Aging Parents, 2014). Late adulthood is defined as being over the age of sixty-five (Later Adulthood, n.d.). The sibling relationships is forced relationships that are maintained by the siblings to foster a lifelong relationship (Martin, Anderson, Rocca, 2005). Siblings play very different roles for each otherRead MoreRelationship Relationships With Your Family1382 Words   |  6 Pages Relationship Analysis Paper Relationships with your family should be nurturing and should create a supportive environment that allows you to develop into the person that you want to be. Fortunately for me, this is true in all areas of my family. I have tremendous parents, sisters, grandparents, and cousins. These people have been a remarkable support system throughout my life and I cannot be more thankful. Since talking about each one of them is not allowed I will talk about the relationship thatRead MoreSibling Relationships And Family Relationships2682 Words   |  11 Pagesat relationships, whether marital, parent-child, sibling, or peer relationships, they each enforce different demands through interactions with one another (Aksan, Goldsmith, Essex, Vandell, 2013). One relationship that has the longest interaction is sibling relationships, it is arguably the longest relationship an individual experiences and it can continue through the lifespan (Cicirelli, 1995). As the siblings grow their relationship b ecomes more egalitarian than other family relationships (CicirelliRead MoreRelationship Between Family And Family789 Words   |  4 PagesIntroduction Many would agree that the dynamics of the family structure have changed drastically. Families are faced with many challenges, often times outside intervention is necessary in coping with the plethora of issues families face. We are living in a time of increased racial tensions, stress, bullying, domestic violence, mental illness, same-sex marriage, drug abuse, increased divorce rates, blended families, and cohabitation. The use of Marriage and family therapists appears to be increasing. AccordingRead MoreFostering Family Relationship1039 Words   |  5 PagesFostering Good Family Relationship Fostering healthy and meaningful family relationship is paramount in teenagers’ lives. A family is not only important for one’s link to the past, but it is also a strong and powerful agent that provides the love and care that a teenager would mostly need. There are many ways teenagers can do to foster good family relationship. Firstly, teenagers should respect and care for each member of the family. This includes the most elderly to the youngestRead MoreAssessment Of A Relationship With The Family1640 Words   |  7 Pagesestablishing a relationship with the family, there occurs the assessment process. In the assessment stage, the counsellor collaborates with the family to uncover the presenting problems. According to Hackney and Cormier (2013) problems may be conceptualized in various ways: as needs, stressors, life conditions, misinterpretations, dysfunctional social patterns, or a combination of these determinants. For Max’s case I chose to utilize approaches and techniques from Minuchin’s Structural Family Theory forRead MoreThe Role Of Family And Caretakers Relationships940 Words   |  4 Pagesbeen done in terms of how this disorder impacts family members and caretakers. The rationale behind this topic is to examine some of the research done involving strengths and struggles of family and caretakers relationships. The articles that will be discussed include: Family Functioning in the Context of Parental Bipolar Disorder: Association with Offspring Age, Sex, and Psychopathology, Relatives’ Emotional Involvement Moderates the Effects of Family Therapy for Bipolar, and In sickness and in health:Read MoreThe Definition Of Marriage And Family Relationships Essay1260 Words   |  6 PagesWhat is the definition of marriage in the Bible? Better yet what is the definition of family in the Bible? In Scripture there are many families which could be studied in order to better answer this question, but some of the most prominent choices are Abraham s family, David s family, and Solomon s family. Each of these families in turn had their own sets of issues and problems, but there are also Biblical solutions to these problems which shall be address through the course of this paper. ButRead MoreFamily Intimate Relationship Interview1128 Words   |  5 PagesFami ly Intimate Relationship Interview Throughout this interview process, it was extremely difficult to find a family not similar to mine. However after many weeks of searching, I found a wonderful family that lives not to far from my hometown, the Lindsay family. While interviewing this family, I spent approximately four hours at their small home in Lake City, TN. This experience was difficult and rewarding at the same time. To me, meeting new people is very hard because I am a really shy person

Reflecting on Religious Expression and School Prayer Essay

This country is comprised of individuals from various ethnic backgrounds, socioeconomic groups, sexual orientations, and faith traditions. Whether it relates to race, class, religion or any other category where one resides in the dominant group, it is tempting not to become oppressive and fail to show mutual respect to the diverse cultures and beliefs of other groups. Furthermore, as educational leaders, we must be equipped with knowledge around policies related to the above mentioned, so that we can enforce such and build upon those that need refining. In reflecting on religious expression and school prayer, it is important to realize the current legal issues and policies that should inform the regulation of such within the context of the†¦show more content†¦Any school promotion or endorsement of a students private religious activity is unconstitutional. There have been various acts across schools within this country to discriminate and demean students within schools because they follow faith traditions different than that of the dominant group. Thus, it is important to realize that though as a school body one cannot endorse or promote one religion or faith-tradition over another, as educational leaders we also should not engage in discrimination and disrespect for faith believes that do not align with ours or allow other students and staff to engage in such. Rather we must work to promote multicultural acceptance and mutual respect, celebrating the rich diversity among all individuals and groups. Landmark Cases There are three landmark cases most relevant to the discussion on religious expression and school prayer. Engle v. Vitale is a case where the Court held that recitation of a prayer composed by the New York State Board of Regents, which was to be said in the presence of a teacher at the beginning of school each day, was unconstitutional and in violation of the Establishment Clause. School District of Abington Township v. Schempp presents a case where the Court held that reading the Bible for sectarian purposes and reciting the Lord’s Prayer in public schools during normal hours were unconstitutional; however, the Court asserted that the Bible could be read as literature inShow MoreRelated Religion and Prayer Must Not be Permitted in Public School Essay1823 Words   |  8 Pagescountry was made up of people from more than one religious background, the government had to come up with a way to accommodate all of its citizens. Understanding the countrys diversity, the writers of the Constitution of the United States of America included in the First Amendment the words, Congress shall make no law respecting the establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise therof . . . (Alley, 24). The two parts of the religious freedom declaration became known as the FreeRead More No Prayer in the Public Schools Essay3232 Words   |  13 Pages   Ã‚  Ã‚   Over the past three decades, the issue of the role of prayer in the public school system has become increasingly controversial. The current debate juggles the opposing interpretations of the exact intentions of Americas Founders, who came from an other country, England, in pursuite of expanded freedoms. The first colonists in the 17th century especially desired religious freedom, because their former British government forced them all to learn and practice a centralized religion. ConsequentlyRead MoreAn Idyllic Mental Image Of Eileen1616 Words   |  7 PagesStill of school-age, Stephen’s distant admiration for Eileen initiates his recognition of women as sexual beings and foreshadows the important role women and relationships will play as he matures. When daydreaming about an idyllic mental image of Eileen, Stephen artistically compares her girlish â€Å"long thin cool white hands [to] a Tower of Ivory [and] her fair hair [to] a House of Gold,† (Jo yce 49). Stephen’s meticulous focus on Eileen’s physical features introduces him to viewing females as sexualRead MoreThe Effects Of Effectual Daily Prayer On Mental Health5652 Words   |  23 PagesRunning Head: EFFECTS OF EFFECTUAL DAILY PRAYER 1 EFFECTS OF EFFECTUAL DAILY PRAYER 2 The Effects of Effectual Daily Prayer on Mental Health in Adults Diane T. Bethmann, RN, MSN Student Jennifer M. Wood, MSN, RN Chamberlain College of Nursing Author?s Note Diane T. Bethmann, MSN Student, Chamberlain College of Nursing Jennifer M. Wood, Department of Nursing Faculty, Chamberlain College of Nursing Read MoreEssay on Personal Experience: Sunday Worship1900 Words   |  8 Pageschurch. I walked into the sanctuary prepared to participate in the Sunday School. I found a seat and readied myself to engage in some meaningful discussion. After sitting for several minutes, I asked one of the gentlemen who was standing at the front of the church if they had already started and where was the lesson coming from. He looked at his watch and indicated that he didn’t know if we had time for Sunday School. A puzzled look came over my face and I couldn’t help but express my confusionRead MoreFowler’s Theory of Faith Development: Understanding Prayer3920 Words   |  16 PagesFowler’s Theory of Faith Development: Understanding Prayer PSY 410: The Psychology of Spiritual Development Spirituality and religion play a significant role in shaping the lives of individuals. Regardless of whether you follow the practices of an organized religion, simply believe in the spiritual life force or claim to not ascribe to religious or spiritual traditions, all of these paths affect the way an individual interacts with the world around them. One of the major influences of religionRead MoreCulture and Religion8004 Words   |  33 Pagesstories, and more. It is within this world that our self-understanding takes place. By saying this, we have already stepped into the world of culture. We realize that religion cannot exist without cultural expressions. Religion, however, is not submerged into culture. Cultural expressions and embodiments of religion can and should be challenged by new experiences of faith. This is also true for Christianity of the past. They are a product of a meeting of faith and culture. In this sense, ChristianRead MoreSMSC12647 Words   |  51 Pagesacross the curriculum 19 7 Assessing SMSC in the primary school 27 8 Citizenship in secondary schools 34 9 The Christian ethos of the school and sex and relationships education 38 10 Resources and websites 39 1 Introduction Since the 1988 Education reform Act schools have had a statutory duty to ‘promote the spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical development of pupils at the school and of society’. The Education (Schools) Act 1992 underlined the importance of this duty by makingRead MoreThe Importance Of Scholarly Research Learning1921 Words   |  8 Pageshighest reported category for Muslim adolescents was adjustment disorder† (p. 107). Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) were the second most frequently reported problem at 16.5 percent (Basit, 2010. P.107). Violent behavior at home, at school, or in the community is just 5 percent, and drug abuse is only 3 percent more than likely due to unwillingness to report because of societal perception. Internet/Media Resource Learning In contrast to the scholarly references, internet and media resourcesRead MoreThe Mystical And Contemplative Tradition Of My Faith And Signed Up For Ignatian Spiritual Direction Training3594 Words   |  15 PagesIntroduction At a session during a week of 24 hour daily prayer at our local church, something of the crisis of church in the C21st penetrated my soul. The church rector cried out on behalf of a church in decline. I took note. I had begun to explore the mystical and contemplative tradition of my faith and signed up for Ignatian Spiritual Direction training. I joined with a Christian business colleague to lead a small gathering of women who do not relate to church but who wanted to explore their

Totalitarian Society In The Handmaids Tale By Margaret...

In the book The Handmaids Tale by Margaret Atwood, the story’s setting takes place in a totalitarian city, in which the government forces their will upon on the citizens and chooses what they will do in the future, especially for women. The decreasing birth rates causes the formation of this civilization, but the reader soon learn that the way the government tries to fix this problem is wrong, as it leads to more problems such as trust issues, and the inability to see others as equal. The characters in Margaret Atwood’s The Handmaid’s Tale all have unique symbolism that represent a real-world problem of having a totalitarian society and how people would act towards it, that can be seen in their personalities, which allows for the reader†¦show more content†¦Throughout the story, Moira stands for a symbol of hope to our narrator. She expresses this feeling when she says, â€Å"Just to catch sight of a face like that is encouragement. If I could just see Moira, just see her, know she still exists.†(73.) It is clear that one of the motivations for surviving and getting through this way of life is her friend. But as the story goes on we find out that the totalitarianism eventually breaks her down in the end. Offred finds out she is still in the society working a place called Jezebel’s (a strip club), and once she sees that not even Moira who has a â€Å"strong and perseverant† personality couldn’t make it out, she herself begins to lose hope. Moira represents that after a while, a society built like this one, structured after a totalitarian government can break down even the strongest of spirits. She shows the difficulty of escaping this sexual totalitarian government, and how once a part of this society it is hard to escape; But Offred tries to fight this way of thinking, but because everyone is so â€Å"on guard† due to this society structure it eventually leads to trust issues with everyone. The way the society is set up in the story, it has lead to nobody knowing really who they can trust. This especially applies to Offred, since her mind set is †I’ve crossed no boundaries, I’ve given no trust, all is safe.†(160) With thisShow MoreRelatedFeminism In The Handmaids Tale1709 Words   |  7 PagesRepublic of Gilead, a dystopian world with a patriarchal society, is displayed in Atwood’s, The Handmaid’s Tale. More specifically, the novel takes place in what used to be considered the United States but is now being called the Republic of Gilead where freedoms and rights have been excluded, especially for women. The society nurtures a â€Å"theocratic, patriarchal, nightmare world created by men, with the complicity of women† (â€Å"Margaret (Eleanor) Atwood†). The separation of the freedoms between the gendersRead MoreOppression Of Women In The Handmaids Tale1732 Words   |  7 Pagesshown in The Handmaid’s Tale When describing the newly established society in The Handmaid’s Tale, the Commander states that â€Å"better never means better for everyone [...] it always means worse, for some† (Atwood, 244). This accurately describes the nature of patriarchal societies, such as the society that is described by Margaret Atwood in The Handmaid’s Tale. The Republic of Gilead is a patriarchal society that has religious, and patriarchal values that benefit the men in the society, at the expensesRead MoreHandmaids1019 Words   |  5 Pagesalso its language and construction. This notion articulates profoundly within Margaret Atwood’s novel A Handmaid’s Tale as it is, after all, the author’s manipulation of the language and construction which enacts as vehicles towards the reader’s understanding of the content. A Handmaid’s Tale is a confrontational post-modern work of feminist dystopian fiction; it depicts a protagonist’s struggle to adapt to a totalitarian and theocratic state where language has become corrupted. Without any doubtRead MoreThe Handmaid s Tale By Margaret Atwood1060 Words   |  5 PagesIn a modern-day society, there are ideologies that select groups of people are to be subjugated. The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood plays on this idea dramatically: the novel describes the oppression of women in a totalitarian theocracy. Stripped of rights, fertile women become sex objects for the politically elite. These women, called the Handmaids, are forced to cover themselves and exist for the sole purpose of providing children. The Handmaid’s Tale highlights the issue of sexism while alsoRead MoreThe Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood Essay2490 Words   |  10 Pagesfreedom from,† (Atwood 24). The Handmaid’s Tale, written by Margaret Atwood, is a novel set in the near future where societal roles have severely changed. The most notable change is that concerning women. Whereas, in the past, women have been gaining rights and earning more â€Å"freedom to’s†, the women in the society of The Handmaid’s Tale have â€Å"freedom froms†. They have the freedom from being abused and having sexist phrases yelled at them by strangers. While this may seem like a safer society, all of theRead MoreFeminism in Top Girls and The Handmaids Tale Essay1635 Words   |  7 PagesBoth Top Girls and The Handmaid’s Tale relate to contemporary political issues and feminism. Top Girls was written by Caryl Churchill, a political feminist playwright, as a response to Thatcher’s election as a first female British Prime Minister. Churchill was a British social feminist in opposition to Thatcherism. Top Girls was regarded as a unique play about the challenges working women face in the contemporary business world and society at large. Churchill once wrote: ‘Playwrights don’t give answersRead MoreThe Handmaid s Tale By Margaret Atwood1709 Words   |  7 PagesOne of Atwood’s bestselling novel is Th e Handmaid’s Tale, a disturbing dystopian fiction novel. The Handmaid’s Tale is a complex tale of a woman’s life living in a society that endorses sexual slavery and inequality through oppression and fear. The female characters in Margaret Atwood’s novel demonstrates how these issues affects women’s lives. Offred is the individual with whom we sympathize and experience these issues. In The Handmaid’s Tale, Margaret Atwood addresses her perception of the ongoingRead MoreThe And The Handmaid s Tale By Margaret Atwood1260 Words   |  6 PagesTherefore, societies should ensure that citizens are free to follow their individual desires for property because property is what ultimately determines the personality and value of each person in society. Nevertheless, totalitarian regimes are forced to restrain both intellectual and private property in order to ensure citizens follow the government’s revolutionary and oppressive rhetoric. Hence, this paper explores the role of property in two of the most well known fundamentalist societies in literatureRead MoreFeminism Lost in Margaret Atwood’s A Handmaid’s Tale Essay1527 Words   |  7 PagesIn Margaret Atwood’s A Handmaid’s Tale, the human spirit has evolved to such a point that it cannot be subdued by complacency. Atwood shows Gilead as an extremist state with strong religious connotations. We see the outcome of the reversal of women’s rights and a totalitarian government which is based on reproduction. Not only is the government oppressive, but we see the female roles support and enable the oppression of other female characters. â€Å"This is an open ended text,†¦conscious of the possibilitiesRead MoreMargaret Atwood : A Social Activist1225 Words   |  5 PagesMargaret Atwood: a Social Activist Through Feminist Literature The 1980s signified the continuation of an era of social and political upheaval in the United States of America. At the forefront was a socially conservative agenda that aimed to rescind women’s rights only ratified less than a decade before, a marked display of the nation’s desire to uphold traditional values that defined the preceding generation (Franà §oise). Among the devastating political climate, however, was Margaret Atwood:

Shakespeare’s Early Life Free Essays

Although we have many records of his life as a citizen of Stratford, including marriage and birth certificates, little is known about William Shakespeare†s early life and formal education. Due to his success, many would assume that Shakespeare was born and raised in a wealthy noble family but he was actually raised in what would have been considered a middle class family in their time. He was born to middle class parents who lived in Henley Street, Stratford. We will write a custom essay sample on Shakespeare’s Early Life or any similar topic only for you Order Now His father, John, a local businessman made a living as a glove maker and owned his own leather shop. He was a well-known and much respected man that held several important local governmental positions including that of Borough ale-taster to bailiff, the highest public position of office in Stratford. William spent most of his childhood in the small English town of Stratford-upon-Avon. In the sixteenth century, the town was an important agricultural center and market place. â€Å"It is safe to assume that Shakespeare attended the local grammar school that was built and maintained expressly for the purpose of educating the sons of prominent citizens with the sons of burgesses attending free. â€Å"The King’s New School was staffed with a faculty of teachers who held Oxford degrees, and whose curriculum included mathematics, natural sciences, Latin language and rhetoric, logic, Christian ethics, and classical literature. â€Å"2 As well as a strong grounding at grammar school, the other significant educational opportunity afforded all middle-class Elizabethans was the mandatory attendance at church where they read either the Geneva or the Bishops’ Bible. The ‘Authorized† or King James Bible was not studied by William, as it was not published until the year 1611. Shakespeare did not continue his education and attend the university, since university education was reserved for prospective clergymen and was not a particularly mind-opening experience. However, the education he received at grammar school was excellent, as evidenced by the numerous classical and literary references in his plays. More impressive than his formal education, however, is the wealth of general knowledge exhibited in his works, from a working knowledge of many professions to a vocabulary that is far greater than any other English writer. William Shakespeare married his wife, twenty-six year old Anne Hathaway, at the age of eighteen. Their first daughter, Susanna, was baptized only six months later, which has given rise to much speculation concerning the circumstances surrounding the marriage. In 1585, twins, Hamnet and Judith Shakespeare, were born to the couple. Hamnet died at the young age of eleven by which time Shakespeare had already become a successful playwright. Around 1589, Shakespeare wrote his first play, Henry VI, Part 1. Sometime between his marriage and writing this play, he and his wife moved to London, where he pursued a career as a playwright and actor. In London, he formed an acting company in which he was shareholder, actor, and playwright. â€Å"1 In 1594 Shakespeare became a charter member of The Lord Chamberlain’s Men, a group of actors who later changed their name to The King’s Men when they gained the sponsorship of King James I. Just a few years later he was considered the â€Å"principal comedian† for the troupe and then later became the â€Å"principal tragedian. † Despite the fact that during this time acting and playwriting were not considered noble professions; successful and prosperous actors were relatively well respected. Shakespeare was, in fact, very successful in his career and he became quite wealthy in the process. He invested his money in Stratford real estate and was able to purchase the second largest house in Stratford, the New Place, for his parents. In 1596, Shakespeare applied for a coat of arms for his family, in effect making himself into a gentleman, and his daughters married successfully and wealthily. William Shakespeare lived until 1616 while his wife Anna died in 1623 at the age of sixty-seven. He was buried in the chancel of his church at Stratford. While Shakespeare is best known for his plays, he also wrote some of the most beautiful sonnets ever produced in the English language. â€Å"His sonnets employ-and occasionally mock-such traditional Petrarchan themes as blind devotion, the value of friendship, and love†s enslaving power. â€Å"1 Together Shakespeare†s plays and sonnets have had an enormous influence on the development on the Modern English language. More famous than his sonnets, Shakespeare†s plays constitute the most significant corpus of dramatic literature in the world. Secular drama was Renaissance England†s most original contribution to the humanistic tradition. Shakespeare took the plots for most of his plays from classical history, medieval chronicles, and contemporary romances, but he used such stories merely as springboards for the exploration of human nature-the favorite pursuit of all Renaissance humanists. â€Å"1 Love, sex, jealousy, greed, ambition, and self-deception are among the definitive human experiences Shakespeare examined in his plays. It can be concluded that Shakespeare†s drama is the first Western Literature to probe the psychological focus that motivates human action. His plays communicate a profound knowledge of the wellsprings of human behavior as revealed in his masterful characterizations of a wide gamut of humanity. The skillful use of poetic and dramatic means to create a unified aesthetic effect out of a multiplicity of vocal expressions and actions is recognized as an achievement unequaled in other literature. Finally, Shakespeare†s employment of poetry within the plays to express the deepest levels of human motivation in relation to individual, social, and universal situations is considered one of the most astounding accomplishments of the human intellect. How to cite Shakespeare’s Early Life, Papers

Cattle Shed free essay sample

Optimism in ‘The Cattle Shed’ Imagine this: you are confined in a small room as a prisoner, forced to be a laborer because of the political preference Communism, and the love of your life is locked up in his own ‘cattle shed’. How is a person supposed to stay optimistic in these horrible living conditions? In Ding Ling’s â€Å"Sketches from the ‘Cattle Shed’†, the narrator who is placed in solitary confinement due to being a Communist struggles through her everyday life to survive. Most people would be sullen, defeated and angry, but Ling’s narrator embraces glimmers of hope through her lover’s, C. , secret letters. C. is a very important character supporting Ling’s, his letters in the form of poems are inspiring, hopeful and powerful. They relieve the stress of confinement for only a moment, but the lasting effects change her outlook at the end of the story. We will write a custom essay sample on Cattle Shed or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Optimism at a time like this is crucial for the narrator and support from her lover is exactly what she needs, C. chooses his words carefully and subtly eases his lover’s tension. This is shown when the beginning and ending lines of the short story are compared and analyzed. The beginning of the short story starts off as a very vivid description of the prison she is in, Ling uses words like, ‘shrill whistle shrieking’, ‘ear piercing sound’, ‘darkness’, and ‘naked electric light bulb’ (142). Ling sets the tone of the story right from the beginning, using this depressing language to enhance the miserable atmosphere she has been placed in. There is hopelessness in the language used at the initial setting described by Ling. Because of the weighted controversy, the reader expects the narrator to continue with her feelings of hopelessness and defeat. However, when the letters by C. are introduced, they fill the narrator with feelings of optimism and inner strength. The letters by C. are very political and poetic. He is acting as a support system for her, to ease the realities of confinement. When Ling receives these letters she describes them as ‘treasures’ and that â€Å"they would accompany me through the world to the end of my days† (150) giving the sense that these are extremely important and vital to her survival- at all times. It is these ‘treasures’ that give her the power to keep her head up high and also reflect on the positive messages from her husband.. She adores them so much that she says, ‘.. poetic exhortations that I recited so often and which became indelibly imprinted on my heart. † (149) There are many key phrases and words that infer this type of optimism In these letters, C. carefully selects optimistic phrases and words like: â€Å"You must live on! †, â€Å"Hope lies in the struggles of your waves. †, â€Å"Forget the names of those people who harmed you; hold fast to the names of those who stretched out a helping hand in times of difficulty. (149), and â€Å"Straighten your back; fearlessly live on. † (150). Each sentence, carefully written and thought out, were subtle ways to strengthen that hope, to give Ling any small amount of happiness to hold on to. Although Ling still feels like a captive and cannot bear to be away from her lover, she realizes, â€Å"He sought to bring a smile to my face with his optimistic words, but I was already incapable of smiling† (155). Ling feels like she has nothing left to look forward to, she cannot even bear to smile at her husband for the last time. She doesn’t understand that it will be the last time seeing each other, but the fact that she does realize that he is putting in the effort to put her emotions before his own shows that she’s embracing the optimism not by choice but for her undying love for C. The language that is used at the end of the novel, more specifically the last sentence, shows the transfer of C. ’s hope, into the emotions of Ling’s narrator. It reads, â€Å"His arm was raised high, as if in a carefree, joyous, warm farewell to a friend setting out on a journey to distant parts† (155). The language used here ‘carefree, joyous, warm’ all contrast with the hollow hopeless words from the beginning. If she had not been touched by his uplifting words in the letters, the language to describe his departure would be more depressing and heart-wrenching. By looking closely at the beginning and the ending of the short story, the reader can see how his poems/letters shaped her negative, worrisome thoughts into becoming more freeing and positive.